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Sources:1. Borla, Mathilde : Les Statuettes Funéraires du Musée Égyptien de Turin In: Dossiers d'Archeologie
2003
2. KMT, vol. 14, pt. 1
3. Meskell, Lynn: Intimate archaeologies : the case of Kha and Merit. IN: World Archaeology, Vol. 29,
No. 3, Intimate relationships (Feb. 1998), p. 363-379.
4. Shaw, Ian, Nicholson, Paul: British Museum dictionary of ancient Egypt
London: British Museum Press, 1995.
5. Reeves, Nicholas: Ancient Egypt : the great discoveries : a year-by-year chronicle
London : Thames & Hudson, 2000.
6. Vassilika, Eleni: The tomb of Kha : the architect
Torino : Fondazione Museo delle Antichita Egizie, 2010.
7. Russo, Barbara: Kha (TT 8) and his colleagues : the gifts in his funerary equipment and related
artefacts from Western Thebes
London : Golden House Publications, 2012.
8 https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1107/1107.5831.pdf
9. Raffaella Bianucci, Michael E. Habicht, Stephen Buckley, Joann Fletcher, Roger Seiler, Lena M.
Öhrström, Eleni Vassilika, Thomas Böni, Frank J. Rühl. "Shedding New Light on the 18th Dynasty
Mummies of the Royal Architect Kha and His Spouse Merit", in PLOS-One, July 22, 2015
http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0131916
Images of Deir el-Medina:
past & present
The British Museum, London, UK
The British Museum opened its doors to the public in January 1759. The Museum's origins lie in the will of Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), a physician, naturalist and collector, who wished that his collection of over 71,000 objects, library and herbarium should be preserved intact after his death. An Act of Parliament establishing the British Museum received royal assent in June 1753. The founding collections consisted mainly of books, manuscripts and natural history, with some antiquities and ethnography. King George II donated the "Old Royal Library" of the monarchs of England (now housed in the British Library in London) in 1757.
www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk
The Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan contains objects from every stage of the region's long history, from around 4500 BC to the late 14th century AD. The collection is one of the most comprehensive and magnificent in the world, surpassed only by the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Most of the objects in the collection have been acquired. The earliest and most important is the first collection of the British Consul General, Henry Salt, acquired in 1823. The earlier collection representing Egypt consisted of objects acquired by the British nation after the defeat of the French fleet at Abukir in 1802. A substantial part of the collection is the result of scientific excavations which began in Egypt shortly after 1881. Many objects come from a variety of gifts. The collections of the British Museum contain many objects from Deir el-Medina, mainly inscribed objects.
The photographs are published with the kind permission of Dr Richard Parkinson of the British Museum's Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan and the British Museum's Photographic Officer.
Objects previously or currently on display in the public galleries of the British Museum from the site of Deir el-Medina:
Stela dedicated to "the Osiris, the able spirit of Ra"
19th dynasty, c. 1295-1186 BC
British Museum EA 359
From Deir el-Medina
Painted limestone
The seated figures - Pennub and Khamuy - who are described as "able spirits of Ra" are seated on their chairs facing each other, holding lotus flowers in their hands.
One of the forms used to commemorate deceased ancestors were small stelae. These were usually round or pointed. Some of them bore the figures of deceased individuals who were identified as revered ancestors by the epithet Akh-iker-en-Re, "the able spirit of Ra". The akh-spirits were the blessed dead, those who had attained a place in the sun-bark of the god Ra. Their magical powers protected them from the dangers of the afterlife. They could also use them for or against the dead and the living. To become an akh (plural akhu), one had to know the magic spells, perform funeral rites and get the gods, especially Ra, to intervene on one's behalf.
Over 50 stelae from Deir el-Medina attest to the existence of household cults dedicated to deceased relatives who had become akhu (Lesko, 1994, 112). The spirits could be dangerous if offended, and offerings to the akhu were both propitiatory and reverential.
Stela depicting a deceased person
British Museum EA 372
19th dynasty, about 1295-1186 BC
From Deir el-Medina
Painted limestone
Pennub and Khamuy, who are described as "able spirits of Ra".
Stela of Penbuy
From Deir el-Medina
19th dynasty
Limestone
British Museum EA 1466
This round-topped stela consists of two registers with representations in shallow relief accompanied by inscribed hieroglyphic texts. In the upper register Ptah, the god associated with craftsmen, is seated on his throne in a shrine on the left. To his right is an altar piled high with food offerings. Behind the shrine are four ears and above them three more ears.
In the lower register, the guardian of the tomb, Penbuy, kneels on the right with his arms raised in an attitude of worship. To the left is a large ka-sign. A text, often in columns of varying length, contains a prayer to the Ka of Ptah by Penbuy.
This stela is very well preserved, apart from some damage to the lower left edge, and most of the paint is intact. The background is yellow and the border shows traces of blue.
The hieroglyphs are painted black and the lines between the columns are red. Ptah's hands and face are green, his cap is blue and his body is white. His beard and the outline of his eye are black, and his collars are yellow with a red border. The shrine is yellow with a red border and blue dots. The ears are black, blue and red.
The food offerings are painted in a variety of colours. The human figure and ka-sign are red, and Penbuy's wig and features are black. His collars are blue and green and his skirt is white with red pleats.
Height: 38.5 cm
Width: 27 cm
Stela of Wenenkhu
British Museum EA 1248
Limestone
Probably from Deir el-Medina
The stela shows Wenenkhu and Penpakhenty worshipping the sun god. The sun god is depicted as a
a falcon-headed mummiform figure seated in the sun barque.
Height: 35.3 cm
Width: 23.5 cm
Amennakht, son of Ipuy, was the "scribe of the royal tomb" for thirty years from 1168 BC. He was the copyist of legal and administrative texts from Deir el-Medina, including the will of Naunakhte, the widow of Khenherkhepshef. He appears to be the author of five extant poems, including a lyrical poem about the neighbouring city of Thebes.
Hieratic ostrakon
British Museum EA 41541
From Deir el-Medina
20th dynasty, c. 1160 BC
This poem is a rare example of a literary work by a known individual. It was probably circulated among the village literati and used as a copying exercise for Amennakht's apprentices. Red dots mark the ends of lines of verse.
"Beginning of the educational instruction, saying for the path of life, made by the scribe Amen-nakhte (for) his assistance Hor-Min. He says: You are a man who listens to words so as to separate good from bad; Pay attention and hear my words, do not disregard what I say!"
(Translation from McDowell,1999,139)
Height: 20.5 cm
Length: 16 cm
Acquired in 1905.
Amennakhte's votive stela
British Museum EA 374
20th dynasty, c. 1160 BC
From Deir el-Medina
Limestone
The stela records Amennakhte's prayer to the local goddess, Meretseger, to remove an affliction "Praises for your spirit, Meretseger, Mistress of the West, by the scribe of the Place of Truth (st-maat), Amennakhte true-of-voice; he says: 'Be praised in peace, O Lady of the West, Mistress who turns herself to grace! You made me see darkness in the day I shall
declare Your power to other people. Be gracious to me in your grace!'"
(Translation from the museum label)
Height: 20.6 cm
Width: 14.3 cm
Ostrakon bearing an attendance record of workmen
British Museum EA 5634
From Deir el-Medina
19th Dynasty, year 40 of Ramesses II, about 1239 BC
Limestone
Black and red ink
This large ostrakon has hieratic writing on both sides. At the top of the first page the date is given as "year 40". As the writing has been identified as Ramesside, this must refer to the fortieth year of the reign of Ramses II, around 1239 BC. From the contents it is clear that the list is a summary of the absences of the workmen from their duties. 280 days of this year are recorded. Only about 70 of these days appear to have been full working days. Leaving aside holidays and other non-working periods, the royal tomb would have been largely completed by year 40 of Ramses' reign, and it is possible that the men were moved to other projects, such as the tombs of the queens in the Valley of the Queens.
A list of forty names is arranged in columns of hieratic writing on the right-hand side of each page. On the left are dates written in black in a horizontal line. Reasons for absence are written in red ink above the dates. They are varied and give us a fascinating insight into some aspects of life in ancient Egypt. Illness figures prominently, with a couple of examples of eye disease being mentioned. There is another example of a man being absent after being stung by a scorpion. A labourer acted as a doctor and was often away treating others. Absences due to the death of relatives are recorded, as are references to purification rituals associated with childbirth. A workman was absent to bind (less likely to mummify) his colleague Hormose. Often a day's absence is due to a man 'being with his boss'; other sources show that labourers often worked for their superiors. Occasionally a man is away 'building his house' or at 'his festival', and there are examples of drinking, especially 'drinking with Khonsu'. There is mention of a Khenherkhepshef, who is also referred to in several places as 'the scribe'. Many of the people mentioned here are known from other documents of the period.
It is thought that the tomb scribes would have written daily notes on small stone flakes and then compiled more formal accounts for the administrative records, the result of which would have been this large ostrakon (Strudwick,2006,206).
Height: 38.5 cm
Width: 33 cm
The complete translation of the ostrakon can be found here
Shabti of Kenherkhepshef
British Museum EA 33940
From Deir el-Medina
Shabti figures of the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1070 BC) were often carved in stone, with paint used to give the servants a lifelike appearance. This shabti is a particularly fine example. The heavy wig, with gold bands at the ends, rests on an elaborate and colourful collar. The reddish-brown colour of the face indicates that the figure is male. Ancient Egyptian women were usually depicted with paler skin, suggesting that they did not have to work in the harsh sunlight.
The white paint on the shabti's arms and lower body indicates that the figure is mummified, identifying it with the god Osiris, who is also depicted with his arms crossed over his chest. While the god holds the crook and flail, symbolising kingship, this shabti holds two hoes, symbolising agricultural labour.
Shabti figures were supposed to work for the deceased in the afterlife. A spell was used to activate them. Here, the Shabti spell is skilfully painted in horizontal lines of black hieroglyphs around the figure. The hieroglyphic text begins with Kenherkhepshef's name and title, 'scribe in the place of truth' (the royal necropolis).
Height: 29.3 cm
Width: 8.7 cm
Depth: 5.3 cm
Kenherkhepshef lived in the village of Deir el-Medina and was the official scribe of the tomb from at least regnal year 40 of Ramesses II until regnal year 1 of Siptah (c. 1239-1193 BC). It is now generally accepted that he was an adopted son of the scribe Ramose and his wife Mutemwia, who adopted him as an orphan or pupil to succeed Ramose in his job (Davies, 1996, 103). Kenherkhepshef's job was to keep a record of the workers who were employed in the construction of the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. His comfortable seat, by the workers' resting huts on the pass between the village and the valley, can still be seen. It is inscribed with his name to prevent anyone else from using it. Surviving documents show that Kenherkhepshef used labourers to do private work for him during official hours. He tried to use his office to get the workers to do the work without paying them. He was also accused of bribery on two occasions.
Kenherkhepshef lived in the largest and most central hut in the settlement at the top of the cliffs. Unlike the other huts, it had three rooms. Each room was paved with limestone slabs. It could have been used as Kenherkhepshef's office, where he kept records of the work on the royal tomb and wrote his letters to the officials of the administration.
There is still considerable doubt about the location of his tomb. Tomb No. 1126 is located at the southern end of the cemetery at Deir el-Medina. A double-seated statue of Kenherkhepshef and his wife was discovered in the chapel flanking the doorway leading to the inner chamber.
Headrest of Kenherkhepshef
British Museum EA 63783
From Deir el-Medina
19th Dynasty, circa 1225 BC
Limestone
This limestone tomb headrest is decorated with figures of Bes. The god's fearsome appearance and the snakes and spear he wields were intended to scare away the demons of the night.
Height: 18.8 cm
Width: 23 cm
Depth: 9.7 cm
Behind the headrest in the photo on the left is the front of the papyrus described below.
Papyrus with a list of dreams and their interpretations
British Museum EA 10683, Papyrus
Chester Beatty 3
From Deir el-Medina
19th Dynasty, c. 1275 BC
The meaning of dreams is a subject that fascinated the ancient Egyptians. This hieratic papyrus probably dates from the early reign of Ramesses II (1279-1213 BC). On each page of the papyrus a vertical column of hieratic signs begins with a line: 'if a man sees himself in a dream'; each horizontal line describes a dream, followed by the diagnosis 'good' or 'bad', then followed by the interpretation of the dream. For example, 'if a man sees himself in a dream looking out of a window, good; it means the hearing of his cry'. Or, 'if a man sees himself in a dream with his bed catching fire, bad; it means driving away his wife'. The text first lists good dreams, and then bad ones. The word 'bad' is always written in red, which was considered the colour of ill omen. The papyrus had several owners before it was deposited in the necropolis of Deir el-Medina. It cannot be established
who the original owner was, but it passed into the hands of the scribe Kenherkhepshef.
On the other side of the papyrus, the scribe copied a poem about the Battle of Kadesh, which took place during the reign of Ramesses II (c. 1285 BC). The Dream Book passed to Khaemamen, the second husband of Kenherkhepshef's wife, and then to his son Amennakht (both added their names to the papyrus).
The Dream Book was part of an archive containing a wide variety of literary, magical and documentary material that had been passed down through the family for more than a century. It was discovered sometime in the early 20th century, most likely in the Western Cemetery, but the exact location of the find, or the location of Kenherkhepshef's tomb, has since been lost.
Height: 34.50 cm
Gift of Mrs. Chester Beatty
Hieratic Papyrus
British Museum EA 10731
19th dynasty, circa 1200 BC
From Deir el-Medina
An amulet written in the distinctive cursive hand of Khenherkhepshef. The scroll was folded and worn around the neck. The text is a spell against a demon called Sehaqeq whose eyes are in his head, whose tongue is in his buttocks.
Fragments of papyrus
British Museum EA 10016.2.
Ramesside Period, 1295-1069 BC.
Probably from Deir el-Medina.
Height: 8.3 cm
Width: 52.8 cm
Fragments of a painted satirical papyrus show comic representations of a range of animals mirroring behaviour of common people. The usual roles of humans in their everyday life are turned upside down. This particular portion of the papyrus pictured above is not very well preserved and it is not known whether the fragments are mounted in their original order (Houlihan,2001,66).
From the right a hippopotamus assisted by another animal is brewing beer in a large pottery vat. Next to them a lady mouse is being tended to by a pair of servants - a mouse and a cat. She sits on a chair holding a big flower. In front of her a table full of offerings is positioned. Behind the mouse servant there is a lion seated on a chair either sieving flour of brewing beer (Houlihan,2001,67). Next to him a cat and another animal are carrying a large basket hanging from a pole they carry on their shoulders. On the left side of the papyrus, a missing animal was holding a crook or a sickle, perhaps performing agricultural activities together with the beast in front of it.
Comic erotic scene
British Museum EA 50714.
Ramesside Period, 1295-1069 BC.
Possibly from Deir el-Medina
Limestone
Black ink
This ostrakon is difficult to interpret as it is in a fragmentary state. The figure on the right is male and is having intercourse with the figure on the left, who is probably a woman but could also be a man. The man penetrates her/him from behind, she bends over and turns her head towards him. The inscription in front of them records her speech, but is also incomplete: "Calm is the desire of my skin!"
This type of drawing, depicting ancient Egyptian erotic activity, appears only in unofficial sources - on papyri, figural ostraca and graffiti. Rather than trying to interpret them as insights into sexual behaviour and everyday practices, Patrick Houlihan explains that they are clearly satirical in intent (Houlihan,2001,124,130-131).
Hieratic ostrakon
British Museum EA 5633
20th dynasty, c. 1100 BC
From Deir el-Medina
Limestone
Black ink with some red lines
Fragment of a limestone ostrakon with the text on both recto (18 lines) and verso (16 lines) containing a record of goods purchased by a Lady Webkhet.
The recto text is written within red lines.
Copy of Kemyt by an apprentice scribe
Ramesside period, 1295-1069 BC
Possibly from Deir el-Medina
British Museum EA 5640
The work called Kemyt (The Compendium), an Egyptian word meaning 'that which is completed' or 'that which is completed', is mentioned in the 12th dynasty's The Satire of Trades (c. 1950 BC), so it must be older than that, suggesting that Kemyt was a standard text in the 12th dynasty. The greetings in Kemyt, found at the beginning of a letter it contains, are characteristic of formal letters dated to the 11th dynasty (c. 2000 B.C.), from which its origin can be deduced.
The surviving copies are written in vertical columns divided by space lines, in red colour, rather than in horizontal lines written from right to left, which was the norm during the New Kingdom (James, 2003, 147-148). The appearance of the characters used is old-fashioned, characteristic of the early Middle Kingdom period. Why have more ostraca with parts of Kemyt survived than those with parts of other literary texts? There may be several reasons for this: the text of Kemyt is not particularly interesting (it is a model letter), so perhaps its simplicity and lack of difficulty for the young scribe meant that it could have been used by novice scribes.
It could have been used as the first reader from which the student learnt to read and write the hieratic script. Thanks to its standard formulae and expressions, the exercise was easy to learn and hard to forget, making it ideal for teaching purposes.
The characters on this limestone ostrakon are rather awkwardly written. The opening greeting, known to thousands of ancient schoolboys, reads:
Your state is like living a million times!
May Montu lord of Thebes act for you,
Even as this servant desires!
May Ptah South of his Wall sweeten
your heart with (life), very (much)!
(translation from the museum label)
Anthropoid busts
77 examples of anthropoid or ancestral busts have been revealed during excavations at Deir el-Medina, further 11 busts are attributed to the site by their owners or dealers or can be connected to Deir el-Medina on stylistic grounds, and 3 more busts that were in the Luxor and Cairo antiquities markets in 1934-1935 (probably originating from Bernard Bruyère's excavations) that are now lost (Keith,2011,8-9).The busts generally do not bear inscriptions, only 5 bear signs. Typically small, they measure from 10 to 25 cm in height and are made of limestone or sandstone. We can assume that most were originally painted as remains of pigment on some are evident. The gender of the most of the busts is open to question (Janssen,2007,187).
The figures are called 'ancestor busts'. They are thought to have been placed in the small shrine areas that seem to have been part of private houses, and to have played a part in the private worship of the family. Five busts were found in houses at Deir el-Medina, where they would have been placed in wall niches in the first and second rooms. The niches are of comparable size, so this seems likely. Rather than representing anyone in particular, the anonymous nature of the busts suggests that they represent all the ancestors that the family might wish to commemorate. Another theory is that they represent the 'able spirit' of those who had been authoritative in life, presumably the older members of the community. When times were hard, people turned to them for help, i.e. to a parent who was still remembered, rather than to an ancestor of long ago. Some of these would have been older women.
Similar objects have been found at fourteen other sites from the central delta to the Third Cataract. They were found in or near houses as well as in tombs and temples. Whether the context was domestic or religious we cannot be sure, but it is assumed that the ancestor busts evoked memories of a deceased relative for the worshipper.
Anthropoid bust
British Museum EA 61083
Supposedly from Thebes, Egypt
19th or 20th Dynasty, 1300-1150 BC
Painted limestone
Features are carefully modelled, face, wig and wsh collar
(a "broad" collar, a kind of necklace) are painted.
Height: 24.5 cm
Width: 15.5 cm
Thickness: 9 cm
Anthropoid bust
British Museum EA 73988
19th dynasty, 1295-1186 BC
Limestone
Provenance unknown
Stela with inset anthropoid bust
British Museum EA 270
19th dynasty, about 1295-1186 BC
Probably from Deir el-Medina
Limestone
This unique and unfortunately badly damaged stela incorporates two miniature ancestral busts above a scene showing the donor worshipping another bust.
The busts shown in the upper part of the monument were once covered with a layer of plaster, most of which is now lost. Some colour remains to show that the face of the left bust was painted red, while the face of the right bust was painted yellow. Blue and black can also be seen around the busts. The background was painted yellow (Keith,2011,324).
The lower register was left unfinished. Vertical lines and preliminary sketches are visible, but the surface was not fully worked. The figures are not painted, but were probably intended to be. 5 or 6 columns of text are mostly illegible.
Nicola Harrington suggests that part of the inscription may read "...the revered one...of the Mistress of the House, Mut... ...justified" and concludes that the purpose of the stela may have been for a woman to address all her ancestors rather than a specific individual (Keith, 2011, 325).
The cult of Amenhotep I
From the 18th dynasty onwards, the main focus of religious worship in Deir el-Medina was the cult of Amenhotep I, especially in the form of the "Lord of the Village", together with his mother Ahmose-Nefertari.
Jaroslav Černý pointed out that there were several forms of this cult in Deir el-Medina, corresponding to the statues, each of which had a particular name and was housed in the various sanctuaries established there (Černý,1927,182).
Amenhotep I Djeserkare (1525-1504 BC) was the second pharaoh of the 18th dynasty. He was probably very young when he ascended the throne, so it is likely that his mother, Queen Ahmose-Nefertari (c. 1570-1505 BC), acted as regent for the first part of his reign. They are jointly credited with the founding of Deir el-Medina, where they subsequently enjoyed personal religious cults until the late Ramesside period.
In addition to the modest temple that was primarily dedicated to the couple, they were also the secondary honoured guests in the chapels of the other gods.
The deified king had many festivals throughout the year, during which his statue was carried in procession by the Wab priests. These activities were acts of devotion to the deified mother and son and were consistently and exclusively performed by the workers of the village (Ventura 1986, p. 63). The feasts were fairly regular events and were usually part of religious festivals associated with the cult. One festival involved the carrying of the statue of Amenhotep I into the Valley of the Kings, another may have been associated with the anniversary of his death. The deified king was invoked to settle disputes, especially those concerning property. In these oracles the image of the god, Amenhotep I, answered positively or negatively to the questions put to him. Since the priests of this particular cult were drawn from the ranks of the workers themselves, the answer would be a kind of consensus among the priests who carried the divine image. The god's oracular pronouncements, however they were made, carried great weight, and his processions were a high point in the life of Deir el-Medina.
The textual and representational evidence associated with her cult at Deir el-Medina can be seen in cult statues, votive stelae, libation basins, paintings and inscriptions in tombs and on ostraca. More than fifty of the Theban tombs of private individuals contain inscriptions mentioning the name of Ahmose Nefertari.
Below are examples of depictions of the deified couple. They come from Deir el-Medina and are now part of the British Museum collection.
Fragments of wall paintings from the tomb of Kynebu:
The deified ruler Amenhotep I (left)
British Museum EA 37993
20th dynasty, c. 1129-1126 BC
Painted plaster
Height: 44 cm
The deified queen Ahmose Nefertari (right)
British Museum EA 37994
20th dynasty, c. 1129-1126 BC
Painted plaster
Neferabu was a worker from Deir el-Medina who worked in the necropolis sometime during the first half of the 19th dynasty. His activity can definitely be dated to the years 36 and 40 of Ramses II. Neferabu's title was "The Servant of the Place of Truth". The stela below may have come from his tomb TT5 or perhaps from one of the shrines at Deir el-Medina. The relief shows the deceased's sons and relatives, as well as the scribe Pabaki, the draftsman Pashedu and the scribe Ipu, carrying various funerary objects to be placed in his tomb. These include various boxes and stools.
The tomb of Neferabu (TT5) provides an excellent platform from which we can attempt to construct his family tree. Neferabu was apparently the son of "The Servant of the Place of Truth" Nefferonpet and Mahi. Despite the fact that Amenmose is called "father" of Neferabu in TT5, it can be shown that he was actually the father of Neferabu's wife Ta-Isis (or Isis).
There are a number of other stelae and objects from this tomb in the British Museum.
The stela below is in good but incomplete condition. In the literature it is always quoted together with stela 150 (as BM 150+1754). Published by Kitchen in Rammesside Inscriptions, vol. 3, p. 774, part of 154. Also published in The BM hieroglyphic texts from Egyptian stelae etc., edited by T. G. H. James, Part 9: Plate XXX.
Registration Number: 1931,0613.11
Fragment of a stela of Neferabu
19th dynasty
Limestone
From Deir el-Medina
British Museum EA 1754
Acquired in Luxor
Height: 17.5 centimetres
Length: 52 centimetres
Location: Gallery 63/11
Tjaroy, the great-grandson of Amennakhte, was "Scribe of the Royal Tomb" from 1091 BC. During his lifetime the villagers moved to the temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu. Tjaroy is known from his letters and had a reputation for jokes. He undertook many state missions, including one to the south to accompany army supplies. Many letters mention his concern for his family, including his son Butehamun, whose house survives.
Letter from Tjaroy
British Museum EA 10326
20th dynasty, 1071 BC
From Thebes
Tjaroy writes to his son Butehamun from Nubia - "the wilds where I am abandoned in this far-off land" - about various family matters. He assures him that he is getting on well "with my boss and he does not neglect me". He also answers his son's question about some documents that had been lost in a storm.
Letter from Tjaroy's son
British Museum EA 10284
20th dynasty, 1071 BC
From Thebes
In this letter Tjaroy's son Butehamun expresses his concern
for his father to the Priest of Hathor and
Troop-Commander Shedsuhor, who was with him on an
expedition to Nubia.
"Indeed you are good, and my father belongs to you. Be a
pilot for the Scribe of the (Royal) Tomb Tjaroy! You know he
is a man who has no courage(?) of his own at all, since he
has never before made such journeys as now. Help him in the
boat. Look after (him) with vigilance at evening as well,
while he is in your hands, since you are journeying [...]. Now
a man is wretched(?) when he has become troubled, when he
has never before seen the face of fear (i.e. of a crocodile).
Now your people are alive; no harm has come to them. I am
writing to let you know." (Translation from
http://www.britishmuseum.org/research accessed on
23.9.2012)
The remains of Butehamun's house inside the temple enclosure of Medinet Habu
Sarcophabus of Ankhnesneferibre
British Museum EA 32
26th dynasty, about 530 BC
From Thebes. Found by the French expedition in 1832 in the rock tomb above Deir el-Medina.
Ankhnesneferibre was the last "God's Wife of Amun" or "divine adoratrice of Amun" before the Persian conquest in 525 B.C. She was a daughter of Psamtek II (595-589 B.C). Although the sarcophagus was found in the so-called "tombs of the Saite princesses" at Deir el-Medina, Ankhnesneferibre and several other women with the same title had tomb chapels at Medinet Habu, in front of the temple of Ramesses III.
The sarcophagus was reused in Roman times by Amenhotep Pamontu, a late Ptolemaic or early Roman priest whose brother Montuzaf was buried elsewhere in the necropolis. Amenhotep Pamontu added the inscription around the upper edge of the sarcophagus base. He also added his own name to the cartouches of the princess and changed the pronouns in the text. The lid shows the princess clutching the royal staff and flail, symbolising her powerful position in Thebes. The office of divine adoratrice became a centre of power and influence in the late period.
The inscriptions represent a variety of religious texts. They include portions of the Pyramid Texts, the Book of the Dead, several mythological texts, funerary recitations, magical texts, a hymn to the sun, hourly rituals for keeping watch over the deceased, and sacrificial formulae. The combination is unique.
Length : 259 cm
The text on this page was written by Lenka Peacock using the sources listed below.
Photography by Lenka Peacock. All photographs © The Trustees of the British Museum.
Sources:
1. Strudwick, Nigel: The British Museum masterpieces of ancient Egypt. London : The British Museum Press, 2006.
2. Taylor, John H.: Death and afterlife in ancient Egypt
London : British Museum Press, 2001.
3. Pharaoh's workers : the villagers of Deir el-Medina / edited by Leonard H. Lesko
Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 1994.
4. Shaw, Ian, Nicholson, Paul: British Museum dictionary of ancient Egypt
London: British Museum Press, 1995.
5. McDowell, A.G.: Village life in ancient Egypt : laundry lists and love songs
Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1999.
6. Janssen, Rosalind: Growing old disgracefully at Deir el-Medina In Ancient Egypt, December 2004/January 2005, pp. 39-44.
7. Janssen, Rosalind: The old women of Deir el-Medina: Paper delivered at the Institute, 8 December 2006. In Buried history: The journal of the Australian Institute of Archaeology, 2006, Vol. 42, p. 3-10.
8. Janssen, Rosalind and Janssen, Jac. J.: Growing up and getting old in ancient Egypt
London : Golden House Publications, 2007.
9. James, T.G.H.: Pharaoh's people : scenes from life in Imperial Egypt
New York : Tauris Parke, 2003.
10. Bierbrier, Morris : The tomb-builders of the pharaohs
Cairo : The American University in Cairo Press, 1982.
11. Davies, Benedict G.: Who's who at Deir el-Medina : a prosopographic study of the royal workmen's community
Leiden : Nederlands Instituut voor Her Nabije Oosten, 1999
12. Davis, Benedict G.: Genealogies and personality characteristics of the workmen in the Deir el-Medina community during the Ramesside period. Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Liverpool : University of Liverpool, February 1996.
13. Strudwick, Nigel and Helen: Thebes in Egypt : a guide to the tombs and temples of ancient Luxor
London : British Museum Press, 1999.
14. Weeks, Kent R.: The treasures of Luxor and the Valley of the Kings
Cercelli : White Star Publishers, 2005
15. Houlihan, Patrick F.: Wit & humour in ancient Egypt
London : The Rubicon Press, 2001.
16. Keith, Jean Lewis: Anthropoid Busts of Deir el Medineh and Other Sites and Collections : Analyses, Catalogue, Appendices / with contributions by Sylvie Donnat, Anna K. Stevens, Nicola Harrington
Le Caire : Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, 2011
17. Museum's website at www.thebritishmusuem.ac.uk
18. The British Museum's gallery labels
19. The British Museum's web site http://www.britishmuseum.org
The depositories, store rooms and papyrus rooms of the British Museum
On 19 November 2005, the class of Birkbeck College's 'Real Life in Deir el-Medineh' course visited the British Museum
with Rosalind and Jac Janssen. Eleven objects from Deir el-Medina awaited us in the Ancient Egyptian Department.
Study area/library of the department.
All photographs on this page are © by Steve Bayley, a colleague on the course, and were taken by kind permission of the Trustees.
by kind permission of the Trustees of the British Museum.
The accompanying text was written by Lenka Peacock.
Stela of Paneb
EA272
19th dynasty, circa 1195 BC
Limestone
Rectangular shape
Height: 19.3 cm
Width: 17 cm
In the upper register : Paneb, a foreman of the tomb workers, is depicted kneeling and worshipping the goddess Meretseger in the form of a snake. The coiled cobra is undoubtedly Meretseger, the goddess of the Theban necropolis.
The lower register : there are three kneeling male figures, the descendants of Paneb. On the right is Aapakhte, Paneb's son, together with his two sons, Paneb and Nebmehyt. Aapakhte was accused of crimes as an accomplice of his father.
Stela of Paneb
EA273
19th dynasty, circa 1195 BC
Limestone
Round-topped
Height: 20 cm
Width: 13 cm
Upper part: kneeling Paneb worshipping Meretseger in the form of a cobra-headed goddess in shallow relief. Meretseger is seated on a throne.
Lower part: Paneb's sons Aapakhte and Hadnakht are shown kneeling and worshipping.
Both registers are accompanied by simple incised text.
The upper and lower corners of the left side of the stela are chipped, but otherwise the stela is well preserved. There are no traces of paint.
Stela of Aapakhte
EA35630
19th dynasty, circa 1200 BC
Limestone
Round-topped
Height: 21.2 cm
Width: 14 cm
Depth: 2.5 cm
Aapakhte was the son of Paneb and a royal craftsman and deputy of the crew at the Place of Truth. He is shown worshipping the god Seth. Both figures are carved in sunken relief and are accompanied by incised text. The writing of the text is irregular, as can be seen in the word ỉdnw and the reversal of the pḥty-sign in the name of the owner. The name of the craftsman is a play on the phrase aa-pehty, meaning 'great of strength', one of the epithets of Seth. During the Ramesside period, Seth became a patron of Egypt along with Amun, Ra and Ptah.
Jac Janssen suggested that the stela probably came from the rock shrine of Ptah and Meretseger, judging from the limestone and the sawed-off lower edge.
Stela of Khamaul
EA344
19th dynasty
Limestone
Round-topped
The stela depicts the deceased Khamaul seated. His left hand is extended towards an offering table piled with food. In his right hand he holds an object, possibly an ankh-sign.
Khamaul is identified here as 3h ikr n R', the term by which these stelae are known today. It can be translated as "the able spirit of Re" or "the one who is continually effective to/for/on behalf of Re". Khamaul represents the deified private ancestor to whom the living could make petitions. Most of the stelae were originally painted. We could see some remains of red pigment on the stela.
Height: 19 cm
Width: 13 cm
Stela of Pabaki
EA797
19th dynasty
Limestone
Round-topped
Height: 38 cm (case)
Width: 29 cm (case)
This large 3h ikr nR' stela of Pabaki shows the deceased seated in front of an offering table. He is holding a lotus in his left hand. The lunette at the top depicts a deity seated in a sacred barque.
Stela of Nefersenut
EA316
19th dynasty
Limestone
Round-topped
Nefersenut was the biological father of Paneb. He is depicted in the top register kneeling with a brazier containing an offering before the goddess Hathor, who sits on the throne.
The lower register shows three kneeling figures. On the left there is Nefersenut's eldest son Paneb, who was to rise to the post of foreman of the workmen, next to him his son Aapakhte, and on the right there is the son of Paneb's daughter, Paneb's grandson.
Four generations of Paneb's family are depicted here.
A letter from Kenna to the god Amenhotep
Hieratic ostrakon O.BM5625
Clearly dated ostrakon, well-written in horizontal lines
Contains a letter, where Kenna complains that Merysakhme wanted to share the chapel that Kenna has rebuilt.
Year 4 (of Ramesses IV), IV 3ht (inundation) 30.
This day, the workman Kenna, the son of Siwadjit,
reported to King Amenhotep, the Lord of the Village,
saying: “Come to me, my good Lord. It was I who
rebuilt the chapel of the workman Pakharu when it
was collapsed.
And look, the workman Merysakhme, the son of
Menna, does not let me sit in it, saying:
‘It is the god who told me to share it with you’.
So he said, although he had not built it together with
me”.
[At the bottom of the recto and at the top of the
verso (actually the same side of the sherd] something
is lost]
verso “…… give the chapel back to
Kenna, its owner.
It is his, by order of Pharaoh, and
nobody shall share it with him”. So
said the god, in the
presence of: [the 2 foremen, the
scribe, the bearers of the god,
and the entire gang], at the
entrance of the tomb of Kaha.
[Merysakhme had to swear that he
accepted the verdict]
A receipt for an ox
Hieratic ostrakon O. BM 5649
Limestone
Recto: Listo of goods delivered in return for an ox, showing value in deben with clearly marked numbers.
An ox represented a substantial investment.
Verso: Summary of various values "w makes y deben".
Jac Janssen pointed out that texts without dates can sometimes be assigned approximate dates by studying the style of the writing and the language uses. The names of any known workmen mentioned in text can be used as clues.
Given in exchange for the ox, which Amenmose brought:
5 smooth ghalabiyehs, makes 25 deben copper
1 smooth sheet, makes 10 deben
1 bed with matting, makes 25 deben
1 bed, makes 12 deben
1 hin (=½ litre) honey, makes 4 deben
15 hin oil, makes 10 deben
5 deben of scrap copper
1 wooden coffin, makes 20 deben
1½ khar of grain, makes 8 deben
Given to him by Amenkha‘u: 5 deben
Given to him: 1 pair of sandals
Given to his daughter: 1 mat and 10
loaves (this is for the 5 deben)
Given to him: 1 pot of beans
Vs. Total 119 deben of
copper (correct!)
Translation from Janssen, Jac: Commodity prices from the Ramessid period : an economic study of the village of necropolis workmen at Thebes
Ostrakon of Khnummose
EA8510
Painted limestone
Black and red ink
Height: 16.5 cm
Width: 20.2 cm
Figured ostrakon showing the workman Khnummose worshipping the serpent form of the goddess Meretseger.
Jac Janssen suggested that this ostrakon had been used as a stela and that the work was not finished.
verso
The verso shows several different inventory references, indicating the object has been in several different collections.
Papyrus Salt 124 (verso)
EA 10055
Late 19th dynasty, c. 1200 BC
From Deir el-Medina
The papyrus contains the petition of the workman Amennakhte denouncing the crimes of the foreman Paneb.
Amennakhte felt that he himself should have been chief workman and that Paneb had taken the job from under him by bribing the vizier. His aim was to have Paneb dismissed on the grounds that he was unworthy and incompetent. The charges he lists here vary from criminal offences to evidence of bad character.
The list of charges starts with claiming that he bribed the vizier with 5 servants to gain his appointment.
a) He was charged with stealing ‘the cover of a chariot’ from the tomb of Seti II.
b) Charges relating to goings-on with married women or women who were living with other men. Hel was one of the women mentioned. Herysunnebef, husband of Hel, was the other adopted son of Neferhotep, and he later divorced Hel, as we know from another source.
c) Stealing stones from the tomb of Seti II for use in his own tomb and using the workmen to work in it (but maybe this wasn’t so bad as other people also used the workmen).
d) The row with Neferhotep, which resulted in Paneb being punished by the vizier. Paneb appealed to pharaoh himself and had the vizier sacked. Paneb evidently was in favour with the right people!
e) He stole the bed from the tomb of a colleague on which the dead workman was lying.
f) He stole a large spike and hid it behind a big stone when a search was made for it.
Other charges include sitting on the king’s sarcophagus when the king was in it, drinking and urinating. He also stole a model of a gilded goose from the tomb of Henutmire who was a wife of Ramesses II and daughter of Seti I. The goose was found in his house, and it may have been with this crime that Paneb went too far.
How far are all these charges reliable? Some of them are not uncommon, but Paneb may have overdone things with the number and variety of his misdeeds. The alleged bribery of the vizier may in fact have been a gift, which Paneb gave in thanks after the event.
Hieratic papyrus
EA10416 (verso)
Ramesside Period
Former Salt collection
Height: 23.5 cm
Width: 22 cm
11 lines on the recto and 13 lines on the verso Jac Janssen suggested the grey colour of the sheet indicated a palimpsest ( a manuscript page from a scroll or book from which the text has been scraped or washed off and which was used again).
In the commentary to his translation, Janssen summarises the text: A married man, very probably Nesamenope, had an adulterous relationship for 8 full months with an unnamed woman, incensing the friends and relations of his legal wife.
They blamed the woman and threatened to beat her up as well as her people, but were restrained by a steward. In a message the steward sent to the woman he expresses his doubts as to the reasons for her behaviour and urges the man to go to court with his own wife, evidently in order to get a "legal" divorce - whatever that meant in those days - then he might live on with his lover if he chose. If, however, he neglects this advice, the steward washes his hands of him and will not again try to restrain
the people when they seek out the woman (Janssen,1991,32).
The text of this chapter on the page was composed by Lenka Peacock.
Photography © The Trustees of the British Museum.
The photographs were taken by Steve Bayley 2005.
Sources:
1. Shaw, Ian, Nicholson, Paul: British Museum dictionary of ancient Egypt
London: British Museum Press, 1995.
2. Janssen, Rosalind and Janssen, Jac. J.: Growing up and getting old in ancient Egypt
London : Golden House Publications, 2007.
3. McDowell, A.G.: Village life in ancient Egypt : laundry lists and love songs
Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1999.
4. Pharaoh's workers : the villagers of Deir el-Medina / edited by Leonard H. Lesko
Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 1994.
5. Les artistes de Pharaon : Deir el-Médineh et la Vallée des Rois : Paris, musée du Louvre, 15 avril - 5 aout 2002
Paris : Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 2002.
6. Bierbrier, Morris : The tomb-builders of the pharaohs
Cairo : The American University in Cairo Press, 1982.
7. Janssen, Jac. J.: Late Ramesside letters and communications
London : British Museum Press, 1991. (Hieratic papyri in the British Museum VI, 1991).
Visit to the Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan at the British Museum
On the 3rd of March 2010 I joined the class of the Birkbeck College course "Real life at Deir el-Medineh" (taught by Rosalind Janssen). We visited the library of the Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan at the British Museum with Rosalind and Jac Janssen. Rosalind's module is all about the details of daily life in a New Kingdom settlement. It aims to increase our understanding of the social life of ancient Egyptians as revealed by archaeology and texts, and to foster an awareness that real life was similar to - and yet different from - our own. Marriage, adultery and divorce, the roles of the village doctor, the wise woman and the scorpion charmer, the punishment of crime, the worship of the ancestors, making a living, going to parties, doing the laundry - these are the topics of the lessons. On Wednesday, ten objects from Deir el-Medina awaited us in the study area/library of the Ancient Egyptian Department. All photographs on this page have been taken by Lenka Peacock by kind permission of the Trustees of the British Museum.
Ancestor bust of Muteminet
EA 1198
Possibly from tomb 373 at Thebes
19th dynasty
Limestone
Height: 51 cm
Width: 26 cm
Thickness: 29 cm
Date of acquisition: 1897
This finely carved bust is inscribed with three columns of hieroglyphic text. The main text bears a dedication to the sistrum player of Amun, Mut and Khonsu, called Muteminet (Mwt-m-int). The back of the bust is roughly finished. The bust is badly damaged at the base and at the back with much loss of the stone surface. There are some gouges on the body and face. Traces of black ink remain in the hieroglyph in the central column of the text.
A parallel bust of Pendjerti, husband of Muteminet, was found in the tomb of her son Amenmose, no. 373 at Thebes. There is little doubt that this bust was one of a pair from this tomb. The royal scribe Amenmose is attested on several monuments and flourished in the reign of Ramesses II (L. Habachi in 'Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes' (Chicago, 1976), 83-103.
Ostrakon
EA5644
From Deir el-Medina
Ramesside (late 19th dynasty)
Pottery
Height: 12.5 cm
Width: 15 cm
Thickness: 4.5 cm
on one side (convex) only, seven lines of an incomplete text concerning payment made by Amenemope to the carpenter Meryre for a bed.
Text: J. Černy and A.H. Gardiner, ‘Hieratic Ostraca’ (Oxford 1957), pl. 5644.3
Stela of Nefersenut
EA316
From Deir el-Medina
19th dynasty
Limestone
Round-topped
Nefersenut was the biological father of Paneb.
Top register: the goddess Hathor is seated on a throne holding a sceptre in her left hand. She wears a crown of uraei consisting of 24 cobras.
Nefersenut is depicted in the upper register kneeling before the seated Hathor with a brazier containing an offering.
The lower register shows three kneeling figures. On the left is Nefersenut's eldest son Paneb, who was to rise to the position of foreman of the workmen, beside him his son Aapakhte, and on the right the son of Paneb's daughter, Paneb's grandson. Four generations of Paneb's family are represented here.
After discussing all the objects that had been prepared for us in the library, we went to see some of the objects on display in the public galleries of the British Museum. First we went to the Nebamun Gallery to see the objects used by the craftsmen of Deir el-Medina:
Top: Rectangular smoother with integrated handle
EA 5986
Carved from one piece of wood. Such tools were used for smoothing plaster, for example in painted funerary chapels or on the surface of mud-brick house walls.
Height: 5.8 cm
Width: 4.3 cm
Length: 17.2 cm
Centre: EA 6045
Bronze chisel with a wooden handle and copper alloy blade. The blade is tapered at the cutting edge.
Length: 25.4 cm
Bottom: EA 15740
Bronze chisel, square at one end and tapering to a point.
Length: 12.7 cm
Palm Fibre Brushes
EA 5555.1-3
Brushes are twisted and cut at both ends.
Length: 13 cm ; Diameter: 1.9 cm
Originally bought by Henry Salt
Paint Brush
EA 36893
Brush made of sticks tied together and frayed at one end; stained with red paint.
Length: 28.2 cm
Paint Brush
EA 36889
Paint brush made of fine palm fibres tied together with twisted fibres. The fibres have been cut at one end to form a brush tip. Traces of red pigment remain on the end of the brush.
Length: 24.7 cm
Diameter: 2.8 cm
EA 36892
Fibre brush held together with bitumen at one end and tied with cord.
Length: 21.5 cm
Scribal Palette
EA 36825
Wood
Rectangular
18th dynasty
Length: 29.8 cm
The upper surface is carved with a row of 9 oval inkwells to the right of the palette. There are two longer and narrower ink wells in the left corner. These wells show traces of the red, yellow and black pigments used by the owner. A column of inscription set in a recess begins with the title 'outline draughtsman (sesh-qed)', but the name of the individual has been erased (except for the masculine determinative). Below the pen slit, a horizontal inscription reads 'the outline draughtsman, Min-nakht, true of voice'.
Beneath this, three characters are roughly drawn in thick ink strokes: a falcon's head with a sun disk and uraeus, and two examples of a disk and a crescent.
In the upper left corner there is an incised inscription on the thickness of the palette, wrapped around the corner: 'Amun-Ra' and 'Ptah lord of Maat'.
Pigment Samples
EA 5563, EA 5568-9
Small pieces of Egyptian pigment.
Egyptian blue was the main pigment used to produce the blue colour in Egyptian paintings and sculptures.
Ostrakon of a goose on her nest
EA 56706
Limestone
Ink drawing on one side
19th or 20th dynasty
The drawing depicts a goose on its nest, with four eggs shown below the bird. There are two very faint drawings of goslings in red in the upper left corner. Possibly painted in black over a red design.
Width: 8.2 cm
Height: 6.5 cm
Sources:
1. Shaw, Ian, Nicholson, Paul: British Museum dictionary of ancient Egypt
London: British Museum Press, 1995.
2. Janssen, Rosalind and Janssen, Jac. J.: Growing up and getting old in ancient Egypt
London : Golden House Publications, 2007.
3. McDowell, A.G.: Village life in ancient Egypt : laundry lists and love songs
Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1999.
4. Pharaoh's workers : the villagers of Deir el-Medina / edited by Leonard H. Lesko
Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 1994.
5. Les artistes de Pharaon : Deir el-Médineh et la Vallée des Rois : Paris, musée du Louvre, 15 avril - 5 aout 2002
Paris : Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 2002.
6. Bierbrier, Morris : The tomb-builders of the pharaohs
Cairo : The American University in Cairo Press, 1982.
7. The British Museum hieroglyphic texts from Egyptian stelae etc. Pt. 12 / edited by M. L. Bierbrier.
London : British Museum Press, 1993.
8. www.britishmuseum.org/research
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